Evaluation Process: Performance Measures and Goals (Creation of the Department of Homeland Security)

(FDNY Firefighter on Ground Zero. Photo by Preston Keres, USN. Wikimedia Commons.)

            Peters said, “The first step in evaluation is to identify the goals of the program, but even this seemingly simple task may be difficult, if not impossible.”

            The DHS has set of strategic goals that are defined by the words: Awareness, Prevention, Protection, Response, Recovery, Service, and Organizational Excellence. The goals are clearly stated publicly and the next step was laying out performance measure to evaluate the goals. Federal agencies are mandated by law under the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA) to set goals, measure performance, and report their accomplishments.

            On a report to President Bush and the Congress, the Gilmore Commission said, “the United States needs an improved homeland security strategy to strengthen security communities facing the greatest risk, improve the use of intelligence, increase the role of the state and local officials, and sharpen disaster response capabilities.”

            The Clinton and Bush Administrations had enacted 87 percent of the recommendations of the Gilmore Commission on security related matters. The Gilmore Commission was headed by former Virginia Gov. James S. Gilmore III.

            The important recommendations of the Commission are as follows, “Combine all departmental grant making programs into a single entity in DHS; establish an interagency mechanism for homeland security grants, revise the homeland advisory system to include a regional alert system, training to emergency responders about preventive actions, and specific guidance to potentially affected regions; establish sustained funding to enhance EMS response capacity for acts of terrorism; and establish comprehensive procedures for sharing information with relevant state and local officials”

Conclusion: The Policy Choice, Output, and Effect (Creation of the Department of Homeland Security)

(DHS Coat of Arms, from Wikimedia Commons)

            The creation of DHS was an avowed public-policy statement of the federal government in protecting and securing the homeland. It was the pro-active approach of the Bush Administration on its domestic policy on terrorism. DHS carries all of the government’s anti-terrorism activities and programs.

            DHS was a product of the policy choice of the elected officials, and their policy output had resulted into the creation of the Department. On the other hand, the policy impact was the effect of both the policy choice and policy output, which is to protect and secure the homeland from another terrorist attacks. The process of establishing the DHS went through five stages and these are the: agenda setting, policy formulation, decision-making, implementation stage, and evaluation phase.

            To legitimize the policy choice of the Bush Administration, the legislative proposal H.R. 5005 was submitted to the Congress for enactment into law. The choice to confront the terrorists through a new government agency was not a result of an outburst of emotion over the tragic incidents of 9/11, rather, the choice to establish the DHS was the outcome of careful studies and recommendations made by congressional leaders, commissions, political think-tanks and by the Bush Administration. There were also insights and suggestions from the civil libertarians, union organizations and even from officials of the affected government offices. All were taken and reviewed for considerations during the public hearing.

            The policy output was the result of the policy choice made by the federal government. Quoting Peters again, he said, “Policy outputs are policy choices being put into action.” The choice to confront head-on the threats from homegrown and transnational terrorist groups had resulted in the formulation of counter-terrorism programs that will prepare, prevent, and respond to terrorist attacks. This policy output had resulted in the consolidation of 180,000 federal employees from around 50 agencies who are involved in homeland-security efforts.

            Policy output also means policy action of the government on anti-terrorism, such as the development and training of the DHS personnel on techniques in covert operations, improvement of the technological equipment in the field to monitor the activities of target personalities, and to maintain active coordination with the IC members.

            The policy effects--intended results of policy choice and policy output--have been the protection of the people from terrorist attacks and the apprehension of the terrorists operating inside the United States. Moreover, according to Peters, “the policy effects may be influenced by the success and failures of the policy choice and policy output.”

             DHS cannot win the fight on terrorism alone. The support and guidance of the originators of the policy (i.e., Bush Administration and the US Congress), were important ingredients in the success of its anti-terrorism programs. The homeland-security managers are given the important tasks of running the second biggest department in the federal government and the expectation for them to lead the agency in combating the terrorists has never been so great.

REFERENCES

CDI Terrorism Project, Chronology of Major Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets, Retrieved 10 May 2004

Intelligence Reforms 1900s, CIA Specific Reforms Proposal.

How Will the Post Cold-War Era End? Background Observations for Session on "Defense Against External Enemies" Visions of Governance for the Twenty-First Century, by Bretton Woods and Ashton B. Carter, July 20-23, 1997

Executive Order 12333 – United States Intelligence Activities, Federal Register,

Carl Limbacher, Hillary Demands “Immediate” answers on Bush 9-11 Heads-Up, Newsmax Retrieved May 16, 2002

St. Petersburg Times On-Line, “Goss: FBI Not Capable of Preventing Terrorism,” St. Petersburg Times, Retrieved May 27, 2002

CDI Terrorism Project, Chronology of Major Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets,

Phil Brennan, “We could have prevented 9-11, Congressional Intelligence Chairman Says.”

Don Van Natta Jr., and David Johnston, “Anti-U.S. Views at Pilot Training School Prompted Agent’s Alert”, The New York Times, May 22, 2002

Ibid.

Pearce, Jean. The ACLU’s War on Homeland Security, FrontPageMagazine.Com, 11 June 2003, Retrieved 11 May 24

US Department of State, International Information Programs, Washington File, Executive Summary of US Commission on National Security Report, 31 January 2001, Retrieved 11 May 2004

Executive Summary of US Commission on National Security Report, US Department of State

New Bill Aims to Create Homeland Defense Agency, National Guards Association of United States, Retrieved April 2001

Executive Order Establishing Office of Homeland Security and the Homeland Security Council, Retrieved 08 October 2001

Daalder, Ivo H, and Destler I.M., Organizing for Homeland Security, Statement Before the Committee on Governmental Affairs, United States Senate, Retrieved 12 October 2001

S. 1449, Bill Summary & Status for the 107th Congress, Retrieved 13 May 2004

Scardaville, Michael, Principles of Creating an Effective U.S. Department of Homeland Security, The Heritage Foundation, 12 June 2002, Retrieved 18 May 2004

S.1534 (To Establish the Department of National Homeland Security) 107th Congress, 1st Session, October 11, 2001, Retrieved 12 May 2004

King, John, Wallace, Kelly, and Meserve, Jeanne, Bush Wants broad ‘Homeland Security’ overhaul, CCN.com, 7 June 2002, Retrieved 18 May 2004

Mescolotto, Andrew N., SEA States Opposition to Nelson, Breaux, Chafee Amendment, Retrieved 26 May 2004

ACLU Says Homeland Security Department Long on Secrecy, Short on Needed Accountability, ACLU Press Release, June 25, 2002, Retrieved 13 May 2004

Congressman Ron Paul, 13 November 2002, U.S. House of Representatives, Retrieved 19 May 2002

Loughlin, Sean, Democrats question items in Homeland bill, CNN Website, 18 November 2002, Retrieved 14 may 2004

Bill Summary & Status for the 107th Congress

King, John, Wallace, Kelly, and Meserve, Jeanne, Bush Wants broad ‘Homeland Security’ overhaul, CCN.com, 7 June 2002, Retrieved 18 May 2004

Peters, Guy, B., American Public Policy (Promise and Performance), CQ Press: Washington DC, 2004

DHS Organization, Who Will be Part of the New Department?, Department Of Homeland Security, Retrieved 18 May 2004

Peters, p.168

The DHS Strategic Plan – Securing our Homeland.

Government Performance and Results Act of 1993

Bennet, Jeremy, 18 Dec 2003, Gilmore Commission Releases Final Report on Homeland Security, Government Technology, Retrieved 12 May 2004

Peters, p4.

Peters, p.5

A Basic Study of Threat and Threat Groups

(Eifel Tower after the Paris Massacre. Courtesy of XtoF, Wikemedia Commons)

      Let me ask you this—do you know anything about the Abu Nidal Organization, the Black September, the Baader-Meinhoff Gang, and the Venezuelan-born Illich Ramirez Sanchez aka Carlos the Jackal? If you answered "Yes" to this question, I would think then that you are from the old generation.

            If you recalled the intermittent campaigns of terror in Europe and in the Middle East in the 1960s and the 1970s,  you would surely agree the al-Qaeda attacks in the World Trade Centers and the Pentagon Building were unprecedented in the annals of terrorism compared to the pre-9/11 era.  

            Now, if you answered "No" to the above question, I would assume that you are from the 1980s,  1990s or from the early 2000s. You—from the younger generations—who have a slightest idea about terrorism, have now become aware of the horrible consequences of ideological extremism gone berserk after  the Paris Massacre and the San Bernardino Carnage.

            In light of the recent terror activities in France and the United States, those who seek to understand the intricacies of threats and threat groups would find this topic informative because this article discusses the various types of terrorism.

            Terrorism is a relative term, as other people would say. We heard so much about the truism “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.” People in the United States might condemn Usama bin-Laden as a terrorist, but to some people in the Muslim world, he was glorified like a hero ala Che Guevarra. (Regan 2005).

            Robert S. Barbers defined terrorism as a “cause, attempt, or threat of destruction of properties or death by showing terror to the public, disturbing peace and order internationally or domestically due to ideological, political, religious, ethnic or cultural belief.” (Barbers 2004).

            The Federal Bureau of Investigation defined terrorism as “a violent act or an act dangerous to human life, in violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any state, to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social goals.” (Cooper 1995).

            Another definition of terrorism is “the use of covert violence by a group for political ends and is usually directed against a government, but is also used against other ethnic groups, classes or parties. The aims and objectives may vary from the redress of specific grievances to the overthrow of a government and the seizure of power, or to the liberation of a country from foreign rule.” (Lacquer 1977).

            The definitions of terrorism entail conceptual and syntactical. It is not surprising that alternative concepts with more positive connotations—guerrilla movements, underground movements, national liberation movements, commandos—are often used to describe and characterize the activities of terrorist organizations, thus establishing their activities on a more positive and legitimate foundations. (Ganor 2005).

             In the past decades, numerous terror groups came into existence to advance their struggle either for economic, political, or religious battles. Security experts have categorized these groups into six major types, namely: the nationalist-terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, left-wing terrorism, right-wing terrorism, anarchist-terrorism, and religious-terrorism. (CFR 2004).

1.      Nationalist-Terrorism is a “form of terrorism through, which participants attempt to form an independent state against what they consider an occupying, imperial, or otherwise illegitimate state.” (Wikepedia 2005). The nationalist-terrorists are individuals who resort to terrorism as a means of achieving independence from foreign control. These groups include the Basque Separatists-ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna), which fought for independence from Spain; the Irish Republican Army, which fought against the British rule; and the Kurdistan Worker’s Party, which wages war against the Turkish government.

2.   State-Sponsored-Terrorism refers to foreign government providing “supplies, training and other forms of support to non-state terrorist organizations. One of the most valuable types of this support is the provision of safe haven or physical basing for the terrorists' organization.” (Terrorism-Research 2005). The groups belonging to the state-sponsored terrorism are the Japanese Red Army, which was once financed by Libya; and the ANO, which was once bankrolled by Saddam Hussein before his defeat in Operation Iraqi Freedom. (U.S. Department of State 2004).

3.    Left-Wing Terrorism “seeks to destroy capitalism and replace it with socialism or anarchism. Extreme cases of radical environmentalism verge on ecoterrorism, which is pushed primarily by left-wing radicals” (Wikepedia 2005). The BMG and the Brigada Rossi (Red Brigade) are examples of groups associated with left-wing terrorism. The Communist Party of the Philippines/New Peoples Army (CPP/NPA) falls under this category also and has been fighting for the eradication of the capitalist society of the Philippines since 1969.

4.     Right-Wing Terrorism, also called as neo-fascist terrorism, is known for their “reactionary violence to what is seen as perceived threats to a group's value system. Right-wing terrorist ideology tends to be a belief in a religious, political, or ethnonational superiority while often supporting the status quo” (Wikepedia 2005). The Ku Klux Klan, the South Africa’s Warriors of the Boer Nation, and Russia’s Skiff are groups that engage in right-wing terrorism.

5.    Anarchist-Terrorism has originated in the late 1800s, and through the years has developed into a different philosophical idea. Anarchism “in its most general meaning, is the belief that the rulership is unnecessary and should be abolished. The word anarchy, as most anarchists use it, does not imply chaos or anomie, but rather a stateless society with voluntary social harmony” (Wikepedia 2005). Through the years, the real meaning of anarchist-terrorism has changed, and its definition evolved into something new that now carries a violent connotation. The present-time anarchists are identified with violent demonstrations and they have been constant protesters in the World Trade Organization meetings. Anarchists co-exist with eco-terrorists, and eco-terrorism is a neologism from anarchist-terrorism. Some  of the anarchist-inspired groups are the Animal Rights Militia and also  the Green Anarchists, which was formerly known as the Earth Liberation Front (ELF). 

6.    Religious-Terrorists “use violence to further what they see as divinely commanded purpose.” (Wikepedia 2005). The Lebanese Shiite group Hezbollah, the doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo of Japan, the al-Qaeda (AQ) network and its affiliates, Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), the Abu Sayyaf Group, and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) are examples of organizations engage in religious-terrorism. The suicidal mindset of the religious-terrorists deepens the degree of concern of their existence because of their religious adherence to jihad (holy war). Their willingness to die for their cause make them dangerous as exemplified by the suicidal operations of al-Qaeda on 9/11 and of ISIS attacks in Paris and San Bernardino. The heavenly rewards—72 virgins and 80,000 servants—are incentives to the Islamist recruits to engage in martyrdom. (Warraq 2002).

            In recent years, there was a gradual and steady shift of mode of attacks from conventional to a more sophisticated form of terrorism using biological and chemical weapons. For instance, the religious-terrorist group Aum Shinrikyo used a chemical weapon-like Sarin (deadly nerve agent) and Botulin Toxin in the 1990s to spread terror in Japan. (Olson 1999). Security experts consider religious-terrorism as the most dangerous kind compared to the other types of terrorism because the religious members are the ones most likely to procure or develop weapons of mass destruction and use them in pursuit of their messianic or apocalyptic visions. (Hudson 1999). Associated Press reports indicated that ISIS has a branch dedicated to creating chemical weapons. (AP 2015).

            The modern day terrorists are no longer confined in one geographical area as exemplified by the operations of JI and AQ networks in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. (CFR 2004). Past terrorist events suggest that the AQ network is also active in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. For instance, The bombings in London on July 7, 2005, has confirmed the overseas infrastructure of AQ network in Europe, which was reported supervised by one Mustafa Setmariam Nasar, a British national of Syrian-descent. (Fielding and Walsh 2005). JI, AQ, and ISIS are transnational terrorists, which means, “involving or operating in several nations or nationalities.” (WordNet 2.0 2005).

            After the 9/11 attacks, the emergence of transnational-terrorists and the imminent danger they present to global security did not escape the attention of the United Nations (UN). On its proactive stance, the UN prodded its members under the UN Security Council Resolutions 1368 and 1378 to work closely with one another in the global war on terror. The call to form security alliances was answered favorably by the democratic nations around the world as they looked up to the United States for leadership.